What Attracts People to Magic?

There is an extensive literature regarding magic, but very little agreement as to what magic actually is. My own approach tends towards the work pioneered by the English anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973), particularly his study of Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande (1937), in which he examined the role of magic and witchcraft in a society in which they were regarded as an integral part of social life. This approach rejects the common Western belief that magic is distinct from both religion and rational thinking. Magic is not separate from religion nor from at least pre-modern science.

I will broadly define magic as being the application of beliefs, rituals, and actions used with the intention of manipulating natural and supernatural beings and forces. It is diverse in form, varying from society to society, although certain commonly occurring features may be discerned. Although modern Western society has supposedly discarded magic, remnants of it can be seen in the belief in lucky charms (as used particularly by some sportspeople), astrology, and fortune telling, as well as the continuing popularity of magical themes in books and movies. The modern West is exceptional in this regard, with magic firmly embedded in many other contemporary societies as well as having been an integral part of ancient civilizations – including Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Mesopotamia – seen as the roots of Western civilization.

What attracts people to magic.

Rather than unpack the intricacies of magical beliefs and practices, I will use this essay to identify what factors attract people to magic. I would suggest that there are four major motivations for people turning to magic: (1) the desire for protection from the dangers and difficulties of life; (2) the acquisitive desire for things we wish for, including both romantic affection and intimacy, wealth, and power; (3) the desire to know the pattern of future events and the consequences of decisions taken; and (4) the desire for revenge and for the punishment of those who we believe have wronged us. Those who are free from these four desires will be less likely to be attracted to magic.

1. Protective magic.

Apotropaic (protective) magic is intended to protect people from harm, bad luck, or evil influences. It ‘wards off’ threats. It is found in many cultures, and was common in such civilizations as Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. It can be used to ward off evil from both people, animals, and buildings. Historically, it has been one of the most widespread expressions of magic – reflecting the natural fear most people have of disease and other forms of ill-fortune. It may also be used to avert the supposed influence of magical curses and other forms of destructive magic such as the ‘evil eye’. It is often combined with practices and objects that are believed to bring good luck.  

Magical protection may be sought in certain practices and rituals – such as Christians who make the sign of the Cross in the face of danger, or sportsmen and women who insist on wearing objects which they believe brings them good luck. It can also be sought in uttering words which are regarded as sacred, and in the possession of objects which are thought to have sacred power such as amulets and talismans. It used to be commonly used by those who built houses to safeguard their work.

Amulets are objects which are believed to confer protection or grace and good fortune upon their possessors. They include both objects which are regarded as having an inherent power and those which need to be formally blessed by a monk or cleric before they can be activated. Amulets may be made of stone, wood, bone, metal, or ceramic. Holy books can also act as protective amulets, as can specially written items such as talismans. Special written vocabulary and symbols may be employed. They may be carried by the individual, attached to their clothing, or placed within their homes. Historically, amulets were commonly used in Ancient Egypt, the ancient Greco-Roman world, and many parts of Asia.

Some amulets were and are intended for specific purposes, including protecting pregnant women against miscarriage, women in childbirth, and young children; to avert evil and misfortune; to ward off black magic; to bring good luck; to stop bullets; to help secure victory in battle; to reanimate the spirits of the dead; to serve as love charms; and to make the individual invisible (e.g. former Filipino president Ferdinand Marcos claimed to have such an amulet inserted under his skin).

Although their use was opposed by some official Jewish, Christian, and Muslims leaders, their use was widespread among adherents of all three traditions, and many religious specialists were active producers of amulets and talismans, whilst others maintained that amulets and other religious materials only gained their protective qualities after they had been formally blessed by clerics.   

They still include a range of Roman Catholic devotional scapulars and medals, which whilst seen by some as devotional aids and reminders of faith and Christian living, are also often attributed with powers of protection from curses, dangers, plague and disease. For some Christians, wearing a cross or crucifix can have the same function, as also in the early Church, did Gnostic phylacteries. Of note, the ‘Green Scapular’ (The Badge of the Immaculate Heart of Mary) is also seen as effective protection for non-Catholics, and as a possible means of regaining the allegiance of lapsed Catholics. [NB. Catholic holy water can be purchased from e-bay as cheaply as 130 baht ($4) with more expensive water from Lourdes at 2,172 baht. One brand sells at 2,172 baht per bottle ($67)]. In some cultures, special clothing, holy water and tattoos may also provide protection.

Protective magic remains common in the modern world. Thus, in Theravadan Buddhism, specific Buddhist verses are recited so as to ward off misfortune and danger. This practice is referred to as paritta, Pali for ‘protection’ or ‘safeguard’, and is believed to heal and protect those who listen to the verses. It is also thought to bring peace and well-being to a community, and is performed both at auspicious occasions such as the inauguration of a new temple or home and at such inauspicious occasions such as funerals and the anniversaries of the deaths of loved ones. The practice is also used to placate antagonistic spirits, and to ask the Buddha directly for aid in situations of distress. The actual sets of selected texts vary between those countries which follow the Theravadan tradition, and has come to be ritualized. Significantly, in the present context, the verses can be used in printed form in both talismans and protective tattoos (Sak Yant).

Buddhist amulets and talismans are widely used in the Theravadan world. In Thailand, amulets (phra-khrueang) are thought to bring protection from danger and black magic, enhance one’s wealth and well-being, and bring peace of mind and the accumulation of merit. The amulets can be made of such materials as plaster, metal, wood, or bone, and are often encased in a protective casing. They can be worn around the neck on a chain, but can also be embedded in the foundations of stupas. They can feature images of the Buddha, deities, or revered monks. As sacred objects, they require religious preparation, with monks chanting blessings over them, in some cases for prolonged periods.

Although generally produced by respected monks, the father of the present king (i.e. King Bhumibol, Rama IX) also made a select issue of 3,000 amulets [Phra Somdet Jitlada] which were given to particular members of the military and police, government officials, and ordinary citizens. In 2013, these were worth at least two million baht each. [=$60,000]

Similarly, Takrut are tubular talismanic amulets which may be worn for protection and blessing in daily life, attractiveness to others, business success, wealth, and invincibility in situations of danger (including war). Commonly, they include Buddhist prayers, but may also feature magical spells and incantations. They are written in one of the pre-modern scripts (the Khom Pali variant of Khmer, and Tai Tham of Lan-na in Northern Thailand). Although now regarded as Buddhist, their use predates the establishment of Buddhism in Thailand. Buddhist talismanic verses are also often inscribed on the interior roofs of motor vehicles to provide hoped for protection – including against road accidents.

A third form of magical device in Thailand are palad khik. These are phallic forms made from wood, bone, horn, or ivory. Small versions may be only a few inches in length, but larger ones may be several feet long. The small ones are mostly worn about the body, usually by men on a cord around their waists in the hope that they will protect against bullets and knives, increase luck in gambling, and cause the wearer to be more attractive to women. Some women also carry one in their purses to protect themselves against mugging and rape. The larger ones are sometimes displayed in shops. Although palad khik are now made by certain monks, and production ideally involves inscribing sacred words and empowerment by the repetition of particular incantations, in their origins they have links to animistic and Shaivist elements.

Sak Yant is a form of sacred tattooing common in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and parts of Myanmar (Burma). Although its origins are likely to lie in the animistic beliefs found across Southeast Asia, it has become linked to the Hindu-Buddhist concept of sacred-magical power expressed in a combination of Buddhist incantations and geometrical patterns of occult significance (yantra). The tattoos are believed to bestow mystical powers, good fortune, insight, and protection from dangers. They are particularly popular among military personnel, police officers, boxers, and gangsters, but have also been adopted by others with varying degrees of seriousness, including Westerners such as Angelina Jolie.

Finally, we have the concept of auspicious names, with many Thais formally changing their names in response to perceived bad luck and having a new and more auspicious name chosen for then – normally by a monk. Monks can also sprinkle you with holy water.   

//NB. There is a thriving market for Buddhist amulets in Thailand, with prices varying greatly depending on their rarity, appearance, maker, age, and reputed sacred power. The most expensive can cost millions of baht, and there are experts who can authenticate their provenance as well as magazine guides to the availability and cost of particular amulets. There is a well-known amulet market next to Thammasat University in central Bangkok. Temples may produce them so as to raise funds for their operations, the amulets being given as ‘gifts’ in exchange for donations. As economic goods, the price can fluctuate according to supply and reputation, and in at least one case, prices for a particular amulet sky-rocketed in 2007 before the bubble burst. Buyers need to be assured that they are buying a genuine item and not a fake, and expert individuals and publications serve an important regulatory function. They are also available for purchase on such popular outlets as e-bay, temu, and shopee.

Protective magic can also be evoked in situations of armed conflict as with the talismanic devices which were supposed to protect the forces of Saya San in their rebellion against the British in Burma (1930-1932) and the holy water deemed to make insurgents invincible in the Maji Maji Rebellion in German East Africa in 1907-1909.

2. Acquisitive magic. Often combined with protective magic is what I am terming ‘acquisitive magic’, that is, any form of magic intended to enable someone to acquire something. The most common forms of this are probably the desire for health, wealth, and romantic love and affection. Love charms are widely found in many societies. In Thailand, certain shrines are also identified as places where those seeking affection can pray for love as per the Trimili Shrine in Bangkok. 

Note that in certain modern religions, financial contributions to the group are believed to be linked to worldly success. [NB. The wealth of some American pastors].

3. Divination is any occult system that seeks to gain insight into the future, including foreseeing, foretelling, predicting, or prophesying events and situations. It can also be used to identify present dangers so that individuals can protect themselves against them, as well as opportunities for successful action. As to what may be divined, this ranges from personal decisions such as finding the right romantic partner, to political decisions such as fixing which day is auspicious for a battle, to world-changing events such as dating the end of the world, and in general determining the will of the gods. In some societies, it has been linked to systems of traditional medicine, helping the healer to diagnose the ailments – physical, mental, or social – from which the patient is suffering, as in some forms of African medicine, with diviners also serving as healers. Often, it provides people with a sense of present realities and thus a framework within which they can act: it diagnoses a situation to which inquirers can respond, whether in physical, religious, or magical actions.

Methods vary widely, but most can be broadly divided into omens and oracular consultations. Omens are signs which can be interpreted by those who have the relevant skills and knowledge. Most forms of fortune-telling consist of discovering omens, whether through reading tarot cards or casting runes. Oracles are individuals who are able to contact the gods or spirits on behalf of a petitioner and provide them with an answer to their questions. The two may be combined: as when an oracle also looks for omens, although that is not the primary element in their divination. They may also be complementary – as in the Greco-Roman world, where oracles were few but those able to read omens were many and although less prestigious and limited in their replies thus readily able to cater to the high demand for divination. A special category of oracular seers are those regarded as prophets, who claim to reveal more general guidance and predictions for society as a whole. Finally, a third, intermediate, category consists of various forms of scrying, in which an individual who is not a recognized oracle seeks to put themselves into a trance-like or meditative state – as by gazing into a crystal ball or mirror — in which they hope to gain guidance and discern the future. The presumed ability to speak to the dead also provides a form of divination, whether in dreams, through a medium, or at a ritual site dedicated to that purpose such as the Ancient Greek Nekromanteion — a modern psychomanteum is perhaps similar. Again, at the (non-Greek) Caucasian temple at Anariace, inquirers were merely directed to sleep in the temple to receive direct guidance from the gods.

Some of these systems of divination were central to the functioning of their societies, and were deeply embedded in their particular cultures and religious beliefs – as in Ancient China, Greece, Rome, and Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Other were or are peripheral to the cultural mainstream, existing as part of popular culture – as with modern fortune-telling in Western societies.

Omens. The omens regarded as significant in any particular society can include both natural phenomena (such as eclipses, the flight of birds, and unnatural births) and specific methods of divination performed by a diviner or seer.[1] The later include such ceremonial actions as the Ancient Chinese use of oracle bones or the Ancient Roman augury, in the first of which a respected practitioner interpreted the patterns on burnt bones and in the second the calls and flights of birds (ornithomancy) and the livers of sacrificed animals (hepatoscopy). Other omens may be sought in the study of flour, dust, and salt (aleuromancy; abacomancy; alomancy), chance encounters with animals (apantomancy); spiders (arachnomancy); parrots picking cards; finding passages in a revered book (stoicheomancy; bibliomancy); the ravings of lunatics (chresomomancy); and of course, astrology, dream-interpretation, dice, bone-throwing, palm-reading, and interpreting tea-leaves or coffee grounds (tasseography). In modern Japan, new forms of divination have developed since World War II based on the belief that the compatibility of possible marriage partners can be discerned from their psychological personality type and/or blood group.

Some of these systems of divination can be extremely complex, as with astrology and palm-reading, others relatively simple. Those who have the knowledge to interpret omens through the phenomena recognized as significant in a particular society might occupy a special position within it, as with Roman augurs, or the required skills might be generally known and accessible to many.

Historically, the use of omens is known to have been practiced in many ancient societies, dating back to at least the second millennium BC. including in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia, Persia, Greece, Rome, China, and India

In societies in which omens are or were taken seriously – as in Ancient Rome, then it is regarded as foolish to ignore negative omens, and people might change their travel plans, public appearances, and even political ambitions in response to omens. Thus, in Rome, some omens were regarded as matters of State, the Senate itself might debate their significance, and omens were consulted before military actions were taken. Those who admitted to scepticism, such as Cicero (himself an augur) and the philosopher Sextus Empiricus, were rare.

Oracles. An oracle is a person (or sometimes a thing) who is thought to provide wise counsel and prophetic predictions, generally on the basis of precognition of the future inspired by the gods or spirits. Often the diviner needs to enter a state of trance in order to gain hidden knowledge. Thus, those regarded as shamans, seers, or prophets may enter into trance states in order to provide guidance.

It is of note that in the case of predictive prophecy – such as that provided in Ancient Greece by the oracle at Delphi or the writings of Nostradamus, the wording of the prophecy may be obscure, requiring interpretation and (for cynics) providing a form of plausible deniability. Thus, replying to Croesus, King of Lydia (585-546 BC), the Delphic Oracle (the Pythia) advised him that if he attacked the Persians then ‘a great empire’ would be destroyed: Croesus assumed that this referred to the Persian Empire but it turned out to be his own. Again, responding to the Athenians query as to how to respond to the looming Persian threat, she stated that only ‘wooden palisades’ would save the Athenians from destruction, a statement that could be variously interpreted as building a wooden fence around their city, fleeing to Italy by ship, or using their navy to fight at sea (as actually happened at Salamis [480 BC]). 

Although exact details of their practices may remain obscure, we know of oracles in many parts of the ancient world, such as the Oracles of Wadjet and Amun in Egypt and several Mesopotamian oracles, the earliest from the second millennium BC. They were also present historically in cultures as diverse as Celtic Druidry; the Igbo and Yoruba in West Africa, pre-colonial Mexico and Hawaii, and are still part of Tibetan religious culture, with the Nechung Oracle being regarded as the official state oracle for the Tibetan government in exile. Oracles are still widely consulted across the world.

Westerners are particularly aware of the oracles of the Ancient Greco-Roman world. In Ancient Greece, oracles were thought to be persons through whom the gods spoke directly to the people, often whilst the oracle was in an ecstatic trance. These included a number of sibyls – women located at various religious centres around the multi-polar Greek world who uttered prophetic words. Their cults were subsequently adopted by the Grecophile Romans. There seem to have been at least ten recognized sibyls in mainland Greece, Asia Minor, southern Italy, and Egypt. [Although their cults were supressed in the process of Roman Christianization, the sibyls themselves were subsequently Christianized as harbingers of Christianity. [See various Renaissance depictions, including Filippino Lippi’s ten sibyls (c. 1465-1470. Christ Church, Oxford). The medieval German abbess, mystic, and polymath Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) also came to be styled the Sibyl of the Rhine].   

The most famous of these was the Oracle of Delphi, a figure who may have dated back as far as the Greek Archaic period in the 11^th century BC or even earlier in association with the mother goddess, but who was most famous, from the 8^th century BC onwards, as the Pythia, the priestess to the god Apollo. In this role, she continued to be consulted by supplicants up to the 4^th century AD, including providing often cryptic advice to the great and famous on major political decisions. In some ways, she became the supreme authority in the Greek-world, and was also consulted by foreign rulers such as Croesus of Lydia from 560 BC (about whether to attack the Persian Empire), and the Roman emperors Nero (AD 67), Hadrian (AD 117), and Diocletian (AD 302). The validity of the oracular utterances was regarded as being confirmed by subsequent events. She was referenced by many Classical Authors, including the writer Plutarch, who at one time served as one of the priests at Delphi. The temple of Apollo was finally destroyed by the Christian Emperor Theodosius I in AD 390 as part of his campaign to stamp out all traces of paganism. [Most of its statues and works of art were taken away] Her last recorded response to a questioner was to the Emperor Julian the Apostate in AD 362. It has been suggested that the Pythia’s states of trance were induced by inhaling hallucinogenic gases such as ethylene from a fissure in the rocks beneath the temple, but whether or not this was the case remains a matter of debate.

For the Romans, the most important oracle was the Cumaean Sibyl in Cumae, one of the Greek colonies in southern Italy near what is now Naples. She was regarded as a guide to the underworld, her cave being located close by the volcanic crater of Avernus, the supposed entrance to Hades, and the bridge between the living and the dead. [She was said to have lived for a thousand years, having been granted longevity by the God Apollo but he also allowed her to wither away after she rejected his advances – she had not asked for eternal youth. She was eventually so small, that her body was kept in a jar (ampulla)] [According to the author Petronius, when asked in her shrunken state in the ampulla what she wanted, she replied ‘I want to die’].

The Cumaean Sibyl is credited as the source of the Sibylline Books – collections of prophecies said to have been sold to the early Roman King Tarquin (reg. 534-509 BC) and subsequently stored in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. Following a destructive temple fire in the 80s BC, Sibylline prophecies were collected from across the Roman world to replace those which had been lost. Stored in the rebuilt temple, they were consulted at times of emergency. The Books were finally destroyed in AD 405 at the order of Stilicho, supposedly because he feared their use in undermining the legitimacy of his rule.

4. Aggressive magic.

The fourth major form of magic is that which is aggressive in intent. This has been most commonly expressed in magical cursing. Curses are probably the most common form of negative magic. Their use is ancient, with known examples from Ancient Egypt and Greco-Roman culture.

Cursing is a common human behaviour, in which an individual expresses their extreme annoyance at some occurrence, person, or thing. At a very mild level, a curse may be no more than an expression of anger against particular individuals with the implied wish that they suffer some adversity or misfortune. Magical curses (aka hexes) are more definite and extreme, the individual calling upon a supernatural or spiritual power to inflict adversity, misfortune, or destruction upon the person or thing which is being cursed. This is commonly accomplished by casting a formal curse spell, often with the assistance of a magical expert, and accompanied by the performance of some specific ritual. It is the opposite of a magical blessing. It may also take the form of producing some form of representation of the target of the curse. Protective curses may also be conjured to cause harm to anyone who steals a particular object or violates the sanctity of a tomb. Curses are found in several religious traditions, including in both the Hebrew and Christian Bibles (Thus, there are various curses against Cain, Canaan, anyone who seeks to rebuild the city of Jerico or transgress against God’s law, whilst Jesus denounced the rich, the worldly, the scribes and the Pharisees).

Specific curses have been made by individuals with religious authority in many cultures (including by both clerics and those labelled witches). A famous example is that issued by Gavin Dunbar (c. 1490-1547), the Archbishop of Glasgow, in 1525 against the Border reivers then plaguing the Anglo-Scots borderland. This was read out by local priests to their congregations and was widely published, and included the reivers’ families, crops, and livestock, as well as anyone who assisted them. This is an extract (in Scots):

“ I curse thair heid and all the haris of thair heid; I curse thair face, thair ene [eyes], thair mouth, thair neise, thair toung, thair teith, thair crag [neck], thair schulderis, thair breist, thair hert, thair stomok, thair bak, thair wame [womb], thair armes, thair leggis, thair handis, thair feit, and everilk part of thair body, frae the top of thair heid to the soill of thair feit, befoir and behind, within and without. I curse them gangand [going], and I curse them rydand [riding], I curse thaim standand, and I curse thaim sittand; I curse them etand [eating], I curse thaim drinkand, I curse thaim walkland, I curse thaim sleepand, I curse thaim rysand, I curse thaim lyand; I curse thaim at hame, I curse thaim [..away..] fra hame, I curse them within the house, I curse thaim without the house, I curse thair wiffis, thair barnis [children], and thair servandis participand with thaim in thair deides. I wary [curse] thair cornys, thair catales, thair woll, thair scheip, thair horse, thair swyne, thair geise [geese], thair hennys, and all thair quyk gude [livestock]. I wary thair hallis, thair chalmeris [rooms], thair kechingis, thair stanillis [stables], thair barnys, thair biris [byres], thair bernyardis, thair cailyardis [vegetable-patches], thair plewis [ploughs], thair harrowis, and the gudis and housis that is necessair for their sustentatioun and weilfair.”

In general, former Christian practices of excommunication (now moderated) had the form of curses and malediction against those excommunicated. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church declared that those anathematised were deprived of the protection of God and condemned to eternal fire along with Satan and his minions, such that the Irish saint Maedoc (c. 558-632), who is reported as condemning those he excommunicated to consumption, cholera, paralysis, sudden death, and hell. Again, in 1014, Pope Benedict VIII declared that those who had been anathematized were cursed day and night, standing and sitting, wherever they might be, and – at least according to the sceptical 18^th century writer Laurence Sterne, the 12^th century Bishop Ernulphus of Rochester stated that those who had been excommunicated should be cursed ‘in eating and drinking, in being hungry, in being thirsty, in fasting, in sleeping, in slumbering, in walking, standing, in lying, in working, in resting, in pissing, in shiting, and in bloodletting’. They should be cursed in all the faculties of their bodies, both inwardly and outwardly. [The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759-67)].

The Bible also states that graven images are cursed, as also is idolatry in general. The idea that certain objects are cursed is also found in other belief systems.

Thus, we know that at least as early as 6^th dynasty of the Old Kingdom (24^th-22^nd century BC, Ancient Egyptian rulers had adopted the practice of preparing ‘execration texts’ in which statuettes and other objects which had been given the names of foreign cities and rulers regarded as threatening to the pharaohs were ritually destroyed, presumably so as to affect some magical woe upon them. The practice was continued into the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC) and later. Detailed instructions of the complex rituals involved have survived, as well as many hundreds of the objects involved. Some version of this practice had been adopted for personal use by the Ptolemaic period (305-30 BC), and it has been noted that passages in the Biblical Book of Amos (8^th C BC) resemble these Egyptian practices.

Again, personal ‘curse tablets’ were widely produced across the Greco-Roman world, often appealing to Greco-Roman or Egyptian gods or the spirits of the dead to wreak vengeance upon particular individuals. The wished-for punishment – including death – was often specified. Each tablet typically consisted of an inscription scratched upon a thin sheet of lead which was then rolled, folded, or pierced with a nail, after which it was buried in grave or tomb, or thrown into a well or pool. One collection of these tablets was found at the Roman baths in what is now the English city of Bath, mostly concerning the hoped-for magical punishment of those accused of stealing an individual’s property. Mostly written in the British variant of Latin, the tablets would have been made between the 2^nd and 4^th centuries AD.

Folklore traditions across the world often include various forms of magical effigies of particular individuals similar to the crass Western depiction of ‘Voodoo dolls’. Although these ‘poppets’ can be used as ‘spirit bridges’ to affect harm on others, they are not always created with malevolent intent – for example, they can be used to foster health, protection, and good luck. Examples of malevolent effigies include the Scottish clay corpse (Corp criadhach), in which a specialist would create a clay doll resembling the victim which might be stuck with pins or left in an out-of-the-way stream to gradually decompose. Similarly, the Japanese method of ushi no taki mairi, in which an effigy of the victim was ritually nailed to a sacred tree in order to kill the target.

The modern popular cultural depictions of haunted dolls is a modern reminder of this concept, and we may also note that modern practice of burning effigies of hated politicians and other individuals – as with the British practice of annually burning an effigy of Guy Fawkes, a failed early 17^th century Catholic regicide, or the modern Egyptian burning of an effigy representing the British General Lord Allenby (‘al-Limby’), at one time the effective governor of Egypt.   

5. The sense of meaning. An underlying desire distinctively different from the four desires referred to above is the desire for meaning. I merely note it here as it is not part of my main theme.

Of course, the desire for meaningfulness appears to be a basic part of the human psyche. It can be fulfilled in various ways, including magic, religion more generally, and science. In a settled traditional society, most people acquire a sense of meaningfulness from both their relationships with others and the commonly accepted views of their families and wider community. A few people may question or even reject the traditional meaning system of their community and seek to develop their own independent systems, but they are the exception.* These iconoclasts may be regarded as a danger to traditional authority and treated harshly, but that is not the concern of the present essay. In relationship to magic, we may note that whilst most of those who believe in and practice magic do so without a strong philosophical base, there is a long tradition of erudite writing about magic, including the Hermetic tradition, the Renaissance esotericists, and even Sir Issac Newton (1642-1727), best known for his scientific work, but most of whose writings concern unorthodox theology and alchemy.

* These include both proto-philosophers and -scientists (as with the origins of the Greek philosophical tradition in the inquiries of Thales of Miletus [c. 626/623 – c. 548/545 BC] and his associates, but also religious reformers and schismatics such as Jan Hus and Martin Luther.

[1] Wikipedia provides us with an enormously long entry on ‘Methods of divination’. [about 400 entries including repeats].